The Structure And Function Of Antibodies

The Structure And Function Of Antibodies There is a type of white blood cell called plasma cells which are produced in the bone marrow as B cells then mature into plasma cells, these produce antibodies. Antibodies are either attached to cell surface membranes or secreted as soluble glycoproteins. Antibodies are large Y-shaped proteins which the immune system uses to neutralise and lead to the elimination of foreign bodies. Antibodies are glycoproteins, due to carbohydrates binding to amino acid residues on the polypeptides; these are composed of four polypeptide chains, of which, two heavy chains and two light chains to form the complete antibody. There are small regions at the tip of the antibody called the antigen binding sites; this region is hugely diverse due to random genetic mutations leading to amino acid chain variations causing a hyper variable region that allows it to bind to many different antigens. Adaptive immunity is the immune response that involves antibodies. It is undeveloped at birth, and is the response of the lymphocytes to specific antigens. Antibodies are heavy globular plasma proteins that belong to the family of proteins, immunoglobins. They have sugar chains attached to some of their amino acids making them glycoproteins. Each of their heavy chains has two regions; the constant region (carboxyl-terminal end) for biological effector functions and the variable region (amino-terminal end) for antigen recognition. The light and heavy chains forming the antibody have inter and intra chain disulphide bridges which hold the chains together, the quantity of bonds varies between different antibody molecules. They have a hinge region where the arms of the antibody molecule form a Y-shape; it is named the hinge region due to segmental flexibility at this point. Antibodies have a massively variable antigen binding site due to the different heavy and light chain amino acid configurations. After birth the only antibodies present in the body are the ones passed over by passive immunization from the mother. Early active immune system antibodies develop in the first few years of life. The main function of each antibody is to specifically bind to one or few similar antigens (foreign molecules). The structure of antibodies relates to the three main functions; activity, versatility and specificity. Antibodies prevent pathogens from damaging or entering cells by binding to them. Antibodies stimulate macrophages to engage in the removal of pathogens and also stimulate other immune responses. They bind to various cells such as phagocytes, lymphocytes, platelets etc. this binding leads to the activation of these cells to perform immune functions such as antibody production and phagocytosis. Antibodies can also bind together when theyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢re bound to pathogens, linking them together and stopping the pathogens from moving or causing damage. The function of an antibody binding to an antigen is provided by the structure of the variable region which has the antigen-binding site (known as the Fragment antigen-binding fragment made from one constant and one variable region); the variable amino acid configuration allows a diverse possibility of specific antibodies to bind with antigens found on foreign bodies. The Fragment crystallisable region at the base of the antibody triggers the appropriate immune response for the situation, for example clumping together (where the Fab fragment joins with the Fc region of another antibody) or triggering the release of histamine in an allergic reaction. There are five different antibody isotypes in humans; IgG, IgA, IgM, IgD, and IgE. IgG is the main antibody in the blood however it can move throughout the bodyà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â€ž ¢s tissue. It forms the majority of the active immune antibody response to pathogens. It is also able to cross the placenta during pregnancy, passing on passive immunisation from the mother to the developing foetus. IgA is present in bodily fluids in entrances to the body, such as tears, breast milk, and saliva and also in the respiratory tract, urogenital tract and digestive tract, and its function is to prevent colonisation from pathogens. IgM is either present on B cell surfaces or in a soluble secreted form (in which is the largest antibody due to its pentamer form) in the blood and it is involved in the early immune response and can kill pathogens. IgD is the antigen receptor on B cells not already exposed to antigens. IgE is involved in the allergic response to foreign bodies and releases histamine when bound to allergens. The B cell will produce these various isotypes at different stages of its development. Antibodies are secreted by a type of white blood cell called a plasma cell. Antibodies can occur in two physical forms, a soluble form that is secreted from the cell, and a membrane-bound form that is attached to the surface of a B cell and is referred to as the B cell receptor (BCR). The BCR is only found on the surface of B cells and facilitates the activation of these cells and their subsequent differentiation into either antibody factories called plasma cells, or memory B cells that will survive in the body and remember that same antigen so the B cells can respond faster upon future exposure.[4] In most cases, interaction of the B cell with a T helper cell is necessary to produce full activation of the B cell and, therefore, antibody generation following antigen binding.[5] Soluble antibodies are released into the blood and tissue fluids, as well as many secretions to continue to survey for invading microorganisms.

Delivering Business Value with It at Hefty Hardware Essay

IT Value is defined as the worth or desirability of a thing. It is a subjective assessment. The value of IT depends very much on how a business and its individual managers choose to view it. Strategic positioning, increased productivity, improved decision making, cost savings, or improved service are all ways value could be defined. It is tied to the organization’s business model because adding value with IT should enable a firm to do it business better. One company sees value resulting from all parts of the organization having the same processes; another defines value by return on investment (ROI); still another measures t by a composite of key performance indicators. IT value proposition is that everyone involved in an IT initiative agree on what value they are trying to deliver and how they will recognized it. IT Value is a function of people, process, and technology. The Three Components of the IT Value Proposition: Identification- Recognize and evaluate opportunities. Conversion- Transformation of ideas and opportunities into IT value propositions and creating IT value. Realization- Deliver value and ensure that technology is widely accepted Best Practices in Identifying Potential Value: Joint business-IT structure. Compare value across projects. Utilize a portfolio approach to project selection/prioritization. Establish a funding mechanism for infrastructure. Conversion: Managerial issues with Conversion More projects than resources: Insufficient time to complete all projects; inadequate technical/business resources; significant business process redesign may be required for implementation of IT. IT value creation can be successfully made by: Excellent project management; Effective execution (e.g. change management); Reliable IT operations Best Practices in Realizing Value: Measure outcomes against expected results.[Does Expected Value = Actual Value?]; Plan a value-realization phase for all IT projects; Look for and eliminate root causes of problems; Assess value realization at all levels in the organization; Have provision for acting on new opportunities.

Essay about Case Study Melvin Udall from As Good as It...

The Case of Melvin Udall: Melvin Udall suffers from Obsessive Compulsive Disorder. Melvin sticks to the same routine every day in order to not upset himself, if one thing goes wrong in that daily routine, Melvin’s entire day seems to be ruined to the point where he cannot function well. Melvin is afraid of the germs that are all around him. He does not enjoy being touched in any way, or by anyone, whether it is a stranger walking down the street or a friend, of which Melvin does not have many. Melvin always enters his house and turns around to lock the door, which he counts as he does, turning the lock five times before he is certain that he will avoid any danger that might come if he does not fulfill these rituals; he has the same†¦show more content†¦This condition has a considerable effect on Melvin’s life, not only do these numerous compulsive behaviors take up a lot of time in his life, the reactions that he’s, including his disregard for others and the insults that he throws at people portray him as a mean and stubborn man; which leaves him quite lonely with no friends. Melvin sought treatment into his disorder from a psychiatrist, for which he was prescribed medication to help him. He finds it hard to take the medication, which is in pill form, again an unrealistic worry that he will choke on the pill or not be able to swallow it, and subsequently die from the whole ordeal. Melvin is not a very open person about his disorder; he seemingly finds it hard to talk about what it really is that makes him do and say the things that he does. Melvin does find motivation for his treatment in the form of love. He finds that it is easier to take his medication when he is in the company of Carol; the waitress that brings him is breakfast daily. The thought of being with her soothes Melvin’s need for the compulsions in his life; he is more at ease when he is with her. Melvin unknowingly at first does not feel the need to fulfill his compulsions when he forgets to lock his door, counting it five times, when he returns to his apartment one night. He also finds himself being able to do things, such as stepping on the lines and cracks inShow MoreRelatedObsessive-Compulsive Disorder: An Analysis of Melvin Udall in As Good As It Gets The protagonist in1800 Words   |  8 PagesObsessive-Compulsive Disorder: An Analysis of Melvin Udall in As Good As It Gets The protagonist in the film As Good As It Gets, Melvin Udall is a successful romantic novelist who suffers from obsessive-compulsive disorder. From the onset of the film, Melvin displays ritualistic behavior that aligns with the diagnostic criteria for OCD, specifically the presence of obsessions, compulsions, or both. This paper focuses on Melvin’s particular psychopathology, analyzing the character’s current symptoms

A Comparison of the New England and the Chesapeake Bay...

Chris Nguyen 08/11/2006 AP US History A Comparison of the New England and Chesapeake Bay Regions During the 1700s, people in the American colonies lived in very distinctive societies. While some colonists led hard lives, others were healthy and prosperous. The two groups who showed these differences were the colonists of the New England and Chesapeake Bay areas. The differentiating characteristics among the Chesapeake and New England colonies developed due to economy, religion, and motives for colonial expansion. The colonists of the New England area possessed a very happy and healthy life. This high way of living was due in part to better farming, a healthier environment, and a high rate of production because of more†¦show more content†¦Adulterers were marked as impure by a letter A stitched on their clothing, as in the book The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne. As religion was a very high priority in New England, it was very much less severe in the Chesapeake Bay region. The one established church in the region, the Anglican Church of Jesus Christ, was on ly then established in 1692, more than 70 years after the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth Rock. Most people didnt even go to church regularly or participate in the Anglican Church. The differences in the two regions are not only seen in their religion, but can also be found in their economies. The economy of New England was far more inferior to that of the Chesapeake economy. This was because the New England society was family-oriented and primarily owned only small family farms just large enough to feed their families. Their economy was mainly based on small farming and fishing. This shows that New England was not focusing on economic growth and expansion. The Chesapeake Bay, on the other hand, had a vast economy. The population of Chesapeake Bay outnumbered New Englands population nearly three to one. Their economy was mainly based on the tobacco and slave trading industries. 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